Table of Contents
Physics the Human Adventure: From Copernicus to Einstein and Beyond

Gerald Holton and Stephen G. Brush
 

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Contents

Preface xiii
 

Part A

The Origins of Scientific Cosmology
 

CHAPTER 1

The Astronomy of Ancient Greece 3

    1. The Motions of Stars, Suns, and Planets
    2. Plato’s Problem 5
    3. The Aristotelian System 6
    4. How Big is the Earth? 8
    5. The Heliocentric Theory 10
    6. Modified Geocentric Theories 11
    7. The Success of the Ptolemaic System 14
CHAPTER 2

Copernicus’ Heliocentric Theory 17

    1. Europe Reborn 17
    2. The Copernican System 17
    3. Bracing the System 22
    4. The Opposition to Copernicus’s Theory 23
    5. Historic Consequences 25
CHAPTER 3

On the Nature of Scientific Theory 27

    1. The Purpose of Theories 27
    2. The Problem of Change: Atomis 30
    3. Theories of Vision 31
    4. Criteria for a Good Theory in Physical Science 35
CHAPTER 4

Kepler’s Laws 40

    1. The Life of Johannes Kepler 40
    2. Kepler’s First Law 41
    3. Kepler’s Second Law 43
    4. Kepler’s Third Law 45
    5. Kepler’s Theory of Vision 46
    6. The New Concept of Physical Law 47
CHAPTER 5

Galileo and the New Astronomy 50

    1. The Life of Galileo 50
    2. The Telescopic Evidences for the Copernican System 52
    3. Toward a Physical Basis for the Heliocentric System 54
    4. Science and Freedom 58

Part B 

The Study of Motion
 
 

CHAPTER 6

Mathematics and the Description of Motion 63

    1. René Descartes 63
    2. Constant Velocity 65
    3. The Concept of Average Speed 67
    4. Instantaneous Speed 68
    5. Acceleration 70
    6. Oresme’s Graphical Proof of the Mean-speed Theorem 72
    7. Equations of Motion for Constant Acceleration 73
CHAPTER 7

Galieleo and the Kinematics of Free Fall 77

    1. Introduction
    2. Aristotelian Physics 78
    3. Galileo’s Two New Sciences 80
    4. Galileo’s Study of Accelerated Motion 83
CHAPTER 8

Projectile Motion 88

    1. Projectile with Initial Horizontal Motion 88
    2. Introduction to Vectors 91
    3. The General Case of Projectile Motion 93
    4. Applications of the Law of Projectile Motion 96
    5. Galileo’s Conclusions 97
    6. Summary 99

Part C

Newton’s Laws and His System of the World
 
 

CHAPTER 9

Newton’s Laws and His System 103

    1. Science in the Seventeenth Century 103
    2. A Short Sketch of Newton’s Life 104
    3. Newton’s Principilia 105
    4. Newton’s First Law of Motion 108
    5. Newton’s Seconf Law of Motion 109
    6. Standard of Mass 111
    7. Weight 112
    8. The Equal-Arm Balance 114
    9. Inertial and Gravitational Mass 115
    10. Examples and Applications of Newton’s Second Law of Motion 116
    11. Newton’s Third Law of Motion 118
    12. Examples and Applications of Newton’s Third Law 119
CHAPTER 10

Rotational Motion 123

    1. Kinematics of Uniform Circular Motion 123
    2. Centripetal Acceleration 125
    3. Derivation of the Formula for Centripetal Acceleration and Force 127
    4. The Earth’s Centripetal Acceleration and Absolute Distances in the Solar System 128
CHAPTER 11

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 131

    1. Derivation of the Law of Universal Gravitation 131
    2. Gravitating Planets and Kepler’s Third Law 135
    3. The Cavendish Experiment: The Constant of Gravitation 136
    4. The Masses of the Earth, Sun, and Planets 138
    5. Some Influences on Newton’s Word 139
    6. Some Consequences of the Law of Universal Gravitation 140
    7. The Discovery of New Planets Using Newton’s Theory of Gravity 144
    8. Bode’s Law: An Apparent Regularity in the Positions of the Planets 146
    9. Gravity and the Galaxies
    10. "I Do Not Feign Hypotheses" 151
    11. Newton’s Place in Modern Science 153

Part D

Structural and Method in Physical Science
 
 

CHAPTER 12

On the Nature of Concepts 157

    1. Introduction: The Search for Constancies in Change 157
    2. Science and Nonscience 158
    3. The Lack of a Single Method 159
    4. Physical Concepts: Measurement and Definition 161
    5. Physically Meaningless Concepts and Statements 163
    6. Primary and Secondary Qualities 164
    7. Mathematical Law and Abstraction 165
    8. Explanation 167
CHAPTER 13

On the Duality of Growth and Science 170

    1. The Free License of Creativity 170
    2. "Private" Science and "Public" Science 171
    3. The Natural Selection of Physical Concepts 172
    4. Motivation 174
    5. Objectivity 176
    6. Fact and Interpretation 177
    7. How Science Grows 178
    8. Consequences of the Model 180
CHAPTER 14

On the Discovery of Laws 187

    1. Opinions on Scientific Procedure
    2. A Sequence of Elements in Formulation of Laws 191
    3. The Limitations of Physical Law 195
    4. The Content of Science: Summary 197

Part E

The Laws of Conservation
 
 

CHAPTER 15

The Law of Conservation of Mass 203

    1. Prelude to the Conservation Law 203
    2. Steps Toward a Formulation 203
    3. Lavoisier’s Experiemental Proof 204
    4. Is Mass Really Conserved? 206
CHAPTER 16

The Law of Conservation of Momentum

    1. Introduction 209
    2. Definition of Momentum 210
    3. Momentum and Newton’s Laws of Motion 212
    4. Examples Involving Collisions 213
    5. Examples Involving Explosions 215
    6. Further Examples 215
    7. Does Light Have Momentum? 216
    8. Angular Momentum
CHAPTER 17

The Law of Conservation of Energy 219

    1. Christiaan Huygens and the Kinetic Energy (Vis Viva) Concept 219
    2. Preliminary Questions: The Pile Drive 222
    3. The Concept of Work 223
    4. Various Forms of Energy 224
    5. The Conservation Law: First Form and Applications 226
    6. Extensions of the Conservation Law 229
    7. Historical Background of the Generalized Law of Conservation of Energy: The Nature of Heat 234
    8. Mayer’s Discovery of Energy Conservation 239
    9. Joule’s Experiments on Energy Conservation 242
    10. General Illustration of the Law of Conservation of Energy 245
    11. Conservation Laws and Symmetry 247
CHAPTER 18

The Law of Dissipation of Energy 251

    1. Newton’s Rejection of the "Newtonian World Machine" 251
    2. The Problem of the Cooling of the Earth 253
    3. The Second Law of Thermodynamics and the Dissipation of Energy 256
    4. Entropy and the Heat Death 259

Part F

Origins of the Atomic Theory in Physics and Chemistry
 
 

CHAPTER 19

The Physics of Gases 265

    1. The Nature of Gases—Early Concepts 265
    2. Air Pressure 267
    3. The General Gas Law 270
    4. Two Gas Models 272
CHAPTER 20

The Atomic Theory of Chemistry 275

    1. Chemical Elements and Atoms 275
    2. Dalton’s Model of Gases 276
    3. Properties of Dalton’s Chemical Atom 278
    4. Dalton’s Symbols for Representing Atoms 279
    5. The Law of Definite Proportions 280
    6. Dalton’s Rule of Simplicity 281
    7. The Early Achievements of Dalton’s Theory 282
    8. Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining volumes of Reacting Gases 284
    9. Avogadro’s Model of Gases 285
    10. An Evaluation of Avogadro’s theory 288
    11. Chemistry After Avogadro: The Concept of Valence 289
    12. Molecular Weights 292
CHAPTER 21

The Periodic Table of Elements 296

    1. The Search for Regularity in the List of Elements 296
    2. The Early Periodic Table of Elements 297
    3. Consequences of the Periodic Law 301
    4. The Modern Periodic Table 303
CHAPTER 22

The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases 308

    1. Introduction 308
    2. Some Qualitative Successes of the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 310
    3. Model of a Gas and Assumptions in the Kinetic Theory 311
    4. The Derivation of the Pressure Formula 315
    5. Consequences and Verification of the Kinetic Theory 318
    6. The Distribution of Molecular Velocities 322
    7. Additional Results and Verifications of the Kinetic Theory 327
    8. Specific Heats of Gases 329
    9. The Problem of Irreversibility in the Kinetic Theory: Maxwell’s Demon 333
    10. The Recurrence Paradox 336

Part G

Light and Electromagnetism
 
 

CHAPTER 23

The Wave Theory of Light 341

    1. Theories of Refraction and the Speed of Light 341
    2. The Propaganda of Periodic Waves 344
    3. The Wave Theory of Young and Fresnel 347
    4. Color 350
CHAPTER 24

Electrostatics 352

    1. Introduction 352
    2. Electrification by Friction 352
    3. Law of Conservation of Charge 353
    4. A Modern Model for Electrification 353
    5. Insulators and Conductors 354
    6. The Electroscope 356
    7. Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatics 357
    8. The Electrostatic Field 359
    9. Lines of Force 361
    10. Electric Potential Difference—Qualitative Discussion 362
    11. Potential Difference—Quantitative Discussion 363
    12. Uses of the Concept of Potential 364
    13. Electrochemistry 365
    14. Atomicity of Charge 366
CHAPTER 25

Electromagnetism, X-Rays, and Electrons 369

    1. Introduction 369
    2. Currents and Magnets 369
    3. Electromagnetic Waves and Ether 374
    4. Hertz’s Experiments 377
    5. Cathode Rays 379
    6. X-rays and the Turn of the Century 382
    7. The "Discovery of the Electron" 385
CHAPTER 26

The Quantum Theory of Light 388

    1. Continuous Emission Spectra 388
    2. Planck’s Empirical Emission Formula 391
    3. The Quantum Hypothesis 392
    4. The Photoelectric Effect 396
    5. Einstein’s Photon Theory 398
    6. The Photon-Wave Dilemma 400
    7. Applications of the Photon Concept 402
    8. Quantization in Science 403

Part H

The Atom and the Universe in Modern Physics
 
 

CHAPTER 27

Radioactivity and the Nuclear Atom 409

    1. Early Research on Radioactivity and Isotopes 409
    2. Radioactive Half-Life 413
    3. Radioactive Series 415
    4. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model 417
    5. Moseley’s X-Ray Spectra 422
    6. Further Concepts of Nuclear Structure 424
CHAPTER 28

Bohr’s Model of the atom 427

    1. Line Emission Spectra 427
    2. Absorption Line Spectra 428
    3. Balmer’s Formula 432
    4. Niels Bohr and the Problem of Atomic Structure 434
    5. Energy Levels in Hydrogen Atoms 435
    6. Further Developments 441
CHAPTER 29

Quantum Mechanics 446

    1. Recasting the Foundation of Physics Once More 446
    2. The Wave Nature of Matter 447
    3. Knowledge and Reality in Quantum Mechanics 451
    4. Systems of Identical Particles 456
CHAPTER 30

Einstein’s Theory of Relativity 462

    1. Biographical Sketch of Albert Einstein
    2. The FitzGerald-Lorentz Contraction 464
    3. Einstein’s Formulation (1905) 467
    4. Galilean Transformation Equations 468
    5. The Relativity of Simultaneity 470
    6. The Relativistic (Lorentz) Transformation Equations 472
    7. Consequences and Examples 474
    8. The Equivalence of Mass and Energy 474
    9. Relativistic Quantum Mechanics 477
    10. The General Theory of Relativity 480
CHAPTER 31

The Origin of Solar System and the Expanding Universe 487

    1. The Nebular Hypothesis 487
    2. Planetesimal and Tidal Theories 489
    3. Revival of Monistic Theories After 1940 491
    4. Nebulae and Galaxies 494
    5. The Expanding Universe 495
    6. Lemaître’s Primeval Atom 496
CHAPTER 32

Construction of the Elements of the Universe 499

    1. Nuclear Physics in the 1930s 499
    2. Formation of the Elements in Stars 503
    3. Fission and the Atomic Bomb 506
    4. Big Bang or Steady State 509
    5. Discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Radiation 512
    6. Beyond the Big Bang 513
CHAPTER 33

Thematic Elements and Styles in Science 517

    1. The Thematic Element in Science 517
    2. Themata in the History of Science 520
    3. Styles of Thought in Science and Culture 522
    4. Epilogue 525

Appendixes

APPENDIX I

Abbreviations and Symbols 531

APPENDIX II

Metric System Prefixes, Greek Alphabet, Roman Numerals 535

APPENDIX III

Defined Values, Fundamental Constants and Astronomical Data 537

APPENDIX IV

Conversion Factors 539

APPENDIX V

Systems of Units 541

APPENDIX VI

Alphabetic List of the Elements 543

APPENDIX VII

Periodic Table of Elements 545

APPENDIX VIII

Summary of Some Trigonometric Relations 547

APPENDIX IX

Vector Algebra 551
 
 

General Bibliography 555

Credits 559

Index 561
 
 

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